We are pleased to offer a number of Technical Bulletins,
Technical Notes, and Applications Notes. These are listed below and
can be downloaded from this site as PDF files by following the
links. in the table below.
Also on this site is our online applications library in which you
can search over 140 published papers that refer to experiments
carried out using Solartron Analytical instruments. To reach this
library, click here.
| Title |
|
Abstract |
| TB/ANALYTICAL/001:
High frequency, high current impedance spectroscopy:
Experimental protocols enabling measurement up to 1 MHz
at high current densities
|
|
The availability of wide bandwidth
instruments allows impedance measurements at frequencies up to
1 MHz. However, the bandwidth limitations of
potentiostats when operating at high DC current levels implies
that valid data acquisition is generally limited to
frequencies up to 10 kHz. Unfortunately, this has limited
the application of EIS to cells with current ratings typically
less than 1 A.
Engineers have therefore traditionally relied on DC
techniques, such as current interrupt, to determine the ohmic
losses associated with the stack whilst using the mid to low
frequency spectrum from EIS to understand the remaining cell
characteristics.
This technical note describes some experimental techniques
that overcome the bandwidth limitation at high DC current
levels and provide accurate impedance measurements up to
1 MHz in potentiostatic mode or 125 kHz in
galvanostatic mode, thus allowing the study of mechanisms that
were previously beyond the range of traditional impedance
techniques. These techniques apply to the study of high power
devices such as fuel cells (SOFC, DMFC and PEMs),
supercapacitors and batteries.
Click here to
download
top of page |
|
| TB/ANALYTICAL/002:
Use of auxiliary channels for impedance analysis:
Detecting failure mechanisms within a fuel cell / battery
stack
|
|
The Solartron Analytical CellTest®
System allows high performance DC and impedance testing for
energy storage devices such as batteries, fuel cells and
supercapacitors.
This application note describe one feature of the system
that allows the complete characterization of a multi-cell
battery, which cam also be applied to the investigation of any
multi-cell energy storage device.
A fuel cell stack or multi-cell battery is a complicated
system and it is possible that failures can occur on any of
the individual cells within the system. Single channel
impedance analyzers typically connect across the end terminals
of the entire stack and therefore measure the total impedance
of the stack. Whilst this is useful for assessing the overall
performance of the complete stack, it cannot provide
information regarding the location and cause of faults in
individual cells. The Solartron CellTest System when fitted
with the 14702 auxiliary voltage measurement option is
specifically designed to provide impedance measurements from
individual cells within the stack, allowing rapid assessment
of the behavior of each cell.
Click here to
download
top of page |
|
TB/ANALYTICAL/004:
Solartron CellTest® System Impedance measurement
techniques
|
|
The modular model 1455A and 1453A
FRAs use the latest signal processing devices to provide
high-speed impedance measurements while maintaining the
accuracy, repeatability and resolution of other Solartron
Analytical frequency response analyzers.
This technical note explains why these impedance analysis
systems are the reference standard worldwide and by comparison
with more limited systems explores some of the reasons why
these products are the standard by which others are judged.
Click here to
download
top of page
|
|
Technote
04: Identification of Electrochemical Processes by
Frequency Response Analysis
|
|
This seminal document by Gabrelli
is probably the most complete treatise on the use and
application of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy to be
found, and covers all aspects of EIS from the underlying
theory to the application of the technique towards the
understanding of real electrochemical systems.
Topics covered include the principles of hardware operation
such as the Single Sine Correlation technique developed by
Solartron Analytical, a comparison between the various
techniques used in EIS and discussion of the unique features
of Solartron's FRA's.
Click here to
download
top of page
|
|
| Technote
24: Use and Applications of Electrochemical
Impedance Techniques |
|
This is the second part of
Gabrelli's treatise on the use and application of
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
Click here to
download
top of page
|
|
| Technote
06: An Introduction to Electrochemical Impedance
Measurement |
|
This basic introduction highlights
the key technical concepts regarding electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy (EIS). A brief overview of modeling data using
equivalent electric circuits is presented. In addition,
details of how to connect a potentiostat to an FRA are given.
Click here to
download
top of page
|
|
| Technote
10: Frequency Response Analysis |
|
The mathematical principles behind
impedance analysis are given with particular to the single
sine correlation (SSC) technique. Solartron's unique noise and
harmonic rejection techniques are covered in depth
Click here to
download
top of page
|
|
| Technote
17: Understanding Electrochemical Cells |
|
This note is aimed at the novice
who wishes to gain an understanding of the basics of
electrochemistry. Such topics as ionisation, the electrical
double layer and Faradaic processes are introduced and simple
examples of these processes that occur in real systems are
discussed. In addition, experimental techniques and good
measurement practice are covered
Click here to
download
top of page
|
|
| Technote
26: Analysis and Interpretation of EIS Data for
Metals and Alloys |
|
A review of the use of
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is presented with
example applications. Experimental considerations covered
include the use of ZView to define equivalent circuits and
hardware considerations. Examples of the application of EIS
include characterization of polymer coated metals and alloys,
localized corrosion e.g. pitting and crevice corrosion and
finally the characterization of anodic layers on aluminum.
Click here to
download
top of page
|
|
| Technote
29: The Application of Impedance Spectroscopy to
Cementitious Systems |
|
Tight quality control of concrete
structure is critical during all stages of the construction
process. This note describes the use of impedance spectroscopy
to evaluate the properties of Cementitious mixtures during the
curing process. The effects of particle size, additives such
as PVA and composites upon the frequency response are
analyzed.
Click here to
download
top of page
|
|
| Technote
31: Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)
for Battery Research and Development |
|
The use of electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is presented as an invaluable
tool for the characterization of batteries and fuel cells.
This technique yields quantitative information on a diverse
range of processes including the analysis of state of charge,
study of reaction mechanisms, film aestivation and corrosion
processes.
Experimental techniques are discussed with reference to the
use of Solartron's frequency response analyzers (FRA) and good
measurement practice is covered briefly.
Many example applications are reviewed and include the
characterization of lead-acid batteries, lithium, sodium and
nickel cells and the application of EIS towards the
understanding of the mechanisms associated with metal hydride
systems. Furthermore, the use of EIS in the development of
fuel cells is mentioned with examples including PEM's, SOFC's
and molten carbonate cells.
Click here to
download
top of page
|
|
| Technote
33: The Potentiodynamic Polarization Scan |
|
An overview of the potentiodynamic
polarization scan is discussed with reference to real
electrochemical systems such as the corrosion of stainless
steel. The basic concepts of electrochemistry are introduced
including anodic and cathodic polarization, examples of
oxidation and reduction reactions and the theory behind
thermodynamic (Nernst equation) and kinetic treatment (Tafel
equation) of experimental data. In addition, experimental
protocols are discussed including correct cell design,
appropriate choice of reference couples and instrumentation.
Finally, the application of the potentiodynamic
polarization technique is demonstrated in the analysis of the
sensitization mechanism of 304 stainless steel. The concept of
double loop electrochemical potentiokinetic reactivation
mechanisms are discussed.
Click here to
download
top of page
|
|
| 1470 Tech:
Instrumentation for the Characterization of Energy
Storage Devices and Multi-Cell Systems |
|
The 1470 battery test cell is a
unique system which was specifically designed for measuring
multi-channel, high speed pulse and impedance tests on
batteries, fuel cells and supercapacitors. This note describes
some of the salient features of the 1470 battery test system
and demonstrates the flexibility of multi-channel
instrumentation to energy storage device applications.
Click here to
download
top of page
|
|
| Coatings
Tech: Determination of Coating Adhesion Using
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy |
|
A brief review of the use of
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) for the
determination of organic coatings on metal substrates is
presented. Examples include measurement of swelling, coating
adhesion and delamination, corrosion and blister formation.
In addition, this note reviews the use of equivalent
circuits in the understanding of the frequency response of the
system under investigation and simple network representations
are presented as a guide.
Click here to
download
top of page
|
|
| Advanced Instrumentation for Solid
State Applications |
|
The characterization of solid state
materials such as ceramics, polymers and non-conducting
materials is facilitated with the use of impedance
spectroscopy.
This note describes the use of Solartron's Model 1294
impedance interface which is capable of measuring up to
100 Gohms. Good measurement practice is described
including 4-terminal measurements, shielding and the use of
reference materials to improve the accuracy of results.
Examples include the characterization of YSZ and
ferro-electric materials.
Click here to
download
top of page
|
|
| Beyond the Limits: The 1296
Dielectric Interface |
|
One of the biggest challenges in
dielectric measurement is the analysis of very high impedance,
low loss materials such as ceramics. Accurate measurements of
these parameters over a broad frequency range can yield
valuable information about the properties of a wide variety of
materials.
This note describes the use of our Model 1296 dielectric
interface which enable measurements up to 100 Tohm and
dielectric losses as low as tan delta < 10-4
Click here to
download
top of page
|
|
| Advanced Instrumentation for Civil
Engineering Applications |
|
Electrical characterization
techniques have been adopted by the civil engineering
community to investigate and monitor the development of cement
microstructures. This has enabled the quality control of
concrete at all stages of construction which is necessary to
determine its durability.
This note describes the use of Solartron's Model 1294
impedance interface which is capable of measuring up to
100 Gohms. Good measurement practice is described
including 4-terminal measurements, shielding and the use of
reference materials to improve the accuracy of results.
Click here to
download
top of page
|
|
| Advanced Instrumentation for
Bioimpedance Measurements |
|
Bioimpedance is rapidly gaining
popularity in a wide field of bio research applications
including investigations into skin hydration, dental decay,
body fat content and tissue ischemia.
This note describes the use of Solartron's Model 1294
impedance interface which is capable of measuring up to
100 Gohms. Good measurement practice is described
including 4-terminal measurements, shielding and the use of
reference materials to improve the accuracy of results.
Click here to
download
top of page
|
|
| ImpedTech
1: Impedance Measurement Techniques: Sine
Correlation |
|
An overview of the single sine
correlation technique is presented. This method, traditionally
used in Solartron FRAs, is the most accurate impedance
measuring technique available since it simultaneously rejects
harmonics and with appropriate integration periods can even
detect signals that are buried in the noise
Click here to
download
top of page
|
|
Advanced Measurement Technology
is
a trademark of AMETEK, Inc.